Denominations: The Four Schools

There are four main schools of Tibetan Buddhism: Nyingma, Sakya, Kagyü, and Geluk (described below). All four schools belong to the Mahayana (Great Vehicle) tradition, and therefore propound universal enlightenment. Historically the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism spread from India to China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, Mongolia, and all the regions of the Tibetan cultural sphere (Bhutan and the entire Trans-Himalayan area), as well as the republics of Thuva, Buriat and Kalmykya found in the present-day Russian federation. Philosophically, all four schools of Tibetan Buddhism uphold the Middle Way thought of the Indian Buddhist thinker Nagarjuna (2nd century CE). In the realm of meditative practice, all embrace the complex and profound teachings of Vajrayana Buddhism (Diamond Vehicle). Differences among the four schools are primarily (1) association with a specific lineage of Indian masters, (2) special emphasis on specific aspects of meditative practice, (3) the use and meaning of certain religious and technical terms, (4) the interpretation of Nagarjuna’s philosophy of emptiness, and (5) degree of attention to various matters of epistemological and philosophical concern.

Nyingma: The Old Translation School

Although the name Nyingma (Old School) is a retrospective label, Nyingma historians recognize the Indian mystic Padmasambhava who came to Tibet in the 9th century as the School’s founder. Central to the Nyingma tradition is a genre of scriptures recognized as treasure texts (terma). These are works that are believed to have been written by Padmasambhava and hidden. These spiritual treasures are discovered by specially blessed masters when the time is ripe for their dissemination. Thus according to the Nyingma tradition there are three streams of transmission of spiritual teachings. These are, (1) the distant canonical lineage that traces its origin to the words of the Buddha, (2) the close lineage of the revealed treasures, and (3) the profound lineage of pure visions, said to emerge from spontaneous mystical experience. The best known of this school’s teachings are the meditative practices related to Zokchen, the “Great Perfection”.

Among the great masters of the Nyingma Schools are Longchen Rapjampa (1308-1368), who first systemized the theory and practice of the Great Perfection, Rikzin Jikme Lingpa (1729-1798), greatest discover of the treasure texts, Patrül Rinpoche (1808-1887), greatest elucidator of the Nyingma meditative practices, and Ju Mipham (1846-1912), greatest commentator of the Nyingma perspectives on the Indian Mahayana classics.

Sakya: Upholders of the Chalky Region Monastery

The Sakya School emerged as a distinct tradition in the eleventh century following the founding of the Sakya monastery by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (1034-1102) in 1073. It derives its name “the chalky region” from the site where the monastery was built. Khön Könchok Gyalpo studied under the famous translator Drokmi (992- 1072) who propagated many of the Indian lineages he had studied and practiced. By the thirteenth century the Sakya School had not only reached great heights in its development, but also had effectively assumed the political power in Tibet as well. The central teaching of the Sakya School is the “Path and its Fruition” (lamdre) tradition, which is based on the literature of the Hevajra Tantra as revealed by the Indian mystic Virupa (late 10th century CE). Among the great luminaries of this school are the ‘Five Exalted Masters of Sakya,’ each of whom holds a unique place in the development of the Sakya tradition. Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092-1158) was the first of the five and also the son of Khön Könchok Gyalpo. Lopön Sönam Tsemo (1142-1182) and Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (1147-1216) were both instrumental in systematizing the various teachings of the “Path and its Fruition” cycle. Sakya Pandita (1182-1251), most famous of all, was not only a great master of the Sakya School but also a pioneer in the introduction of Sanskrit poetics into the Tibetan language. He was also responsible for developing much of the scholastic discipline in the Tibetan monastic tradition. Finally, during the patriarchy of Drogön Chögyal Pakpa (1235-1280) the Sakya reached its political zenith through close relations with the Mongol Khan family.

Kagyü: The Sacred Word Lineage

The Kagyü School traces its lineage to the teachings of the Indian mystics Tilopa (circa 988-1089) and Naropa (circa 1016-1100), whose lineage was transmitted in Tibet by the great translator Marpa (1012-1097). Marpa’s principal disciple was Milarepa (1052-1135), arguably Tibet’s best known religious poet and meditator. Among Milarepa’s many students was Gampopa (1079-1153), a polymath and a great synthesizer, who can be recognized as the real founder of Kagyü as a distinct School of Tibetan Buddhism. Following Gampopa’s teachings, there evolved the ‘Four Major’ and the ‘Eight Minor’ lineages of the Kagyü School.

The central teaching of the Kagyü School is the doctrine of Mahamudra (Great Seal) as elucidated by Gampopa. This doctrine focuses on four principal aspects of meditative practice: (1) development of single- pointedness of mind, (2) transcendence of all conceptual elaboration, (3) cultivation of the perspective that all things are of a ‘single taste,’ and (4) application of the path that lies beyond any meditative practice. It is said that through these four stages of development the practitioner will attain the perfect realization of Mahamudra.

Among the many luminaries of the Kagyü lineages are such personalities as the translator Marpa, the poet saint Milarepa, the grand synthesizer Gampopa, the encyclopedist Baram Chökyi Wangchuk and, of course, the successive lineage of the Karmapas.

Geluk: The Virtuous Tradition

The Geluk School was founded by Tsongkhapa (1357-1419), Tibet’s best known religious reformer and arguably its greatest philosopher. A great admirer of the Kadam teachings, Tsongkhapa was an enthusiastic promoter of the Kadam School’s emphasis on the Mahayana principle of universal compassion as the fundamental spiritual orientation. He combined this orientation with strong emphasis on the cultivation of profound insight into the doctrine of emptiness, as propounded by the great Indian masters Nagarjuna (2nd century CE) and Chandrakirti (7th century CE). Tsongkhapa suggested these two aspects of the spiritual path (compassion and insight), must be rooted in a whole-hearted wish for liberation and impelled by a genuine sense of renunciation. He called these the ‘Three Principal Aspects of the Path,’ and said that only on this basis may one embark on the profound path of Vajrayana Buddhism.

The central teachings of the Geluk School are Lamrim (Stages of the path), based on the teachings of the Indian master Atisha (circa 11th century), and the systematic cultivation of the view of emptiness. This is combined with the deity yoga meditations of such Highest Yoga Tantra deities as Guhyasamaja, Chakrasamvara, Yamantaka and Kalachakra, where the key focus is the realization of the indivisible union of bliss and emptiness. By the end of the 15th century, Geluk had become the most dominant School of Tibetan Buddhism, and since the period of the Great Fifth Dalai Lama in the 17th century the Dalai Lamas have held political power in Tibet as well.

Among the many luminaries of the Geluk school are the master logician Gyaltsap (1364-1432), the great commentator Khedrup (1385-1438), the mystic Ensapa Lobsang Dhöndup (1505-1566), the noted historian Panchen Sönam Drakpa (1478-1554), the philosopher Künkhyen Jamyang Shepa (1648-1722), the lojong master Yongzin Yeshe Gyaltsen (1713-1793), and the custodian of vast practice lineages Ngülchu Dharma Badra (1772-1851). In addition, the successive reincarnations of Tibet’s two most well known lama institutions, the Dalai Lamas and the Panchen Lamas, belong to this School.